The global mining sector extracts and refines a wide range of materials, used in everything from construction to automotive output to electricity generation and electronics production.
Each of these produces significant carbon dioxide emissions and has contributed to environmental degradation such as deforestation. These can have negative implications for a range of local stakeholders.
In addition, control of the supply of so-called critical minerals and metals is at the forefront of rising geopolitical tensions across the globe. Trade policy tools such as export restrictions and import tariffs are increasingly being used in the current geopolitical backdrop.
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